VII. Language variation (語(yǔ)言變化）

1. Lexical change(詞匯的變化）：changes in lexis.

2. Invention: (新造詞）new entities.

3. Compounding 合成詞）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.

4. Blending: (混合詞）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.

5. Abbreviation or clipping (縮寫(xiě)）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.

6. acronym 取首字母的縮寫(xiě)詞）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修飾） headword.

7. metanalysis (再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.

8. Back-formation (逆構(gòu)詞） It refers to an abnormal(非正常） type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉） an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.

9. Analogical creation:(類比造詞）It can account for（說(shuō)明） the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(結(jié)合） of some English verbs.

10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.

11. Phonological change(音變）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音） addition,（加音） assimilation,（ 同化）dissimilation.（異化）

12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（詞法） and syntax（句法） are listed under this heading.

13. Semantic change:(語(yǔ)義變化）It includes broadening,（語(yǔ)義擴(kuò)大） narrowing,（語(yǔ)義縮?。?meaning shift,（意義轉(zhuǎn)化） class shift（詞性轉(zhuǎn)換） and folk etymology.（詞源變化）

14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.